For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic gates from families of devices such as the TTL 7400 series by Texas Instruments and the CMOS 4000 series by RCA, and their more recent descendants.
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The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (published in 1705) and he also established that by using the binary system, the principles of arithmetic and logic could be combined.
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In 1965, Patt introduced the WOS module, the first complex logic gate implemented on a single piece of silicon.
Energy efficiency in computing devices, with specific reference to micro and nanoscale logic gate devices