Traditional classification systems recognized Nelumbo as part of the Nymphaeaceae (water lily) family, but traditional taxonomists were likely misled by evolutionary convergences associated with an evolutionary shift from a terrestrial to an aquatic lifestyle.
Given the differences in the patterns of these macrosetae among these genera, and when considering additional characters as outlined above, LaPolla, Brady & Shattuck 2011 (2011) interpreted the presence of macrosetae on the propodeum within Nylanderia as having arisen independently from those observed in other closely related genera.
Previous synonyms of this lineage are rejected; "Caulogastra Pocock, 1893" refers to pedicel, which is symplesiomorphic for the lineage and convergent with Solifugae, and "Arachnidea Van der Hammen, 1977" is easily confused with Arachnida.
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mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data indicate that the dabbling and diving ducks are fairly distant from each other, the outward similarities being due to convergent evolution.
These include differences in rates of evolution in different lineages, different patterns of evolution being apparent in different sources of data, including convergent evolution, and long branch attraction.
The patella has convergently evolved in placental mammals and birds; most marsupials have only rudimentary, non-ossified patellae although a few species possess a bony patella.
This evolutionary convergence is not unusual, since the form of a strobilus is one of the most compact that can be achieved in arranging lateral organs around a cylindric axis, and the consolidation of reproductive parts in a strobilus may optimize spore dispersal and nutrient partitioning.
No other group of insects possesses similar structures (in place of hind wings—insects in the order Strepsiptera have convergently-evolved halteres in place of fore wings).
The two remaining "monochrome" species, Mekong and African Pied Wagtail may be closely related, or a most striking example of convergent evolution.